AP Psych

128 flashcards · Psychology · by 266-750Balloons

1. David McClelland

   •McClelland devised a way to measure H. Murray's theory "the need to achieve that varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances". •McClelland is credited with developing the scoring system for the TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation, not for the TAT itself.

2. Paul Ekman

   •Paul Ekman is an American psychologist who is a pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions. •Known for the theory that facial expressions are universal. •Ekman, when studying how to determine whether an individual is lying or not, found that by teaching researchers to watch for telling signs of lying, such as a rise in voice pitch, they could boost accuracy rates.

3. Hans Eysenck

   •Known for his belief that personality is determined to a large extent by genes. •He used the terms Extroversion/Introversion

4. Henry Murray

   •Murray stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances. •Murray devised the TAT-Thematic Appreciation Test along with Christiana D. Morgan. Subjects are asked to generate stories in response to ambiguous pictures.

5. Robert Zajonc

   •Robert Zajonc was a social psychologist who is known for his work in social and cognitive processes. •Described mere exposure effect It is possible to have preferences without inferences and to feel without knowing why. •Zajonc believed that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our interpretations of a situation.

6. Kubler-Ross

   •Dr. Elizabeth Kubler-Ross created a model that demonstrated the stages of grief that the terminally ill pass through, which included various stages such as denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. •Denial, the first stage describes how grieving people are unwilling to accept the loss that has occurred. Anger, the second stage, is when the person begins to feel angry about the situation, or they think that it is unfair.

7. Fechner's Law

   •Fechner's law is a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity or strength that people feel. •Different variables cause different magnitudes of response.

8. Ernst Weber

   •Weber was a German anatomist and physiologist whose fundamental studies of the sense of touch introduced a concept - the just noticeable difference. •The JND, is the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage(rather than a constant amount).

9. Wernicke's Area

   •The Wernicke's area controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. •In 1874, German investigator Carl Wernicke discovered that after damage to a specific area of the left temporal lobe (Wernicke's area) people could speak only meaningful words.

10. Broca's Area

    •In 1865, French physician Paul Broca reported that after damage to a specific area of the frontal lobe a person would struggle to speak words while still being able to sing familiar songs and comprehend speech. •The Broca's area controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

11. Walter B. Cannon

    •Intentionally swallowed a balloon in order to prove the idea that stomach contractions (transmitted by the stomach balloon) accompany our feelings of hunger (indicated by a key press). •He created the Cannon Bard theory, which implies that your heart begins pounding as you experience fear; one does not cause the other.

12. Clark Hull-Drive Reduction Theory

    •Maintains that the goal of all motivated behaviour is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state. •Essentially, we have a drive to do something that is physiologically necessary, whether it be to eat or drink for example, then we learn and act to reduce the drive for these things by doing something like eating to quench our thirst or hunger.

13. Young-Helmholz Trichromatic Theory

    •States that there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color, these three receptors can combine together to create different variations of color. •There are cones inside our eyes that are used for vision of color and detail.

14. Hubel/Wisel

    •Known for their study of the activities of neurons in the visual cortex •One of their famous experiments included examining neurons in a cat that was anesthetized and watching projected patterns which helped with the study of the activities of neurons in the visual cortex

15. H. Ebbinghaus

    •Ebbinghaus pioneered the study of memory and is known for specifically making the forgetting curve as well as being the first to describe the learning curve. •Ebbinghaus' description and creation of learning related concepts like forgetting were what really set the ground for modern day experimentation over learning.

16. Martin Seligman

    •Seligman realized that organisms may learn to feel helpless in specific situations when they face adverse conditions in which they cannot avoid. •Learned helplessness is the giving up reaction, the quitting response that follows from

17. Karen Horney

    •Critical of Freud's theories. •Claimed that our lives continuously shape who we become, and that there is no inherent difference between men and women, and thus formed something known as "Feminist Psychology."

18. Sigmund Freud

    •Psychoanalytical theory that focuses on the unconscious: Id, Ego, Superego •Founder of Psychoanalysis, a psychology primarily concerned with the understanding of the unconscious. Freud formulated several Psychoanalytic theories

19. William Sheldon

    •Came up with the theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: Endomorphic (large), Mesomorphic (average), Ectomorphic (skinny)

20. Harry Harlow

    •Provided a new understanding of human behavior and development through studies of social behavior of monkeys. •His research contributions have major relevance for general and child psychology. •Need for affection created a stronger bond between mother and infant than did physical needs (food)

21. Kurt Lewin

    •Recognized as the founder of modern social psychology. He is also recognized for his important contributions in the areas of applied psychology and organizational psychology. •He designed an experiment to investigate the effects of different leadership styles on group functions

22. Stanley Milgram

    •He measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience

23. Simon Asch

    •Known for his study on conformity •He had a subject that was unaware of the situation, and it dealt with this various lengths of lines. The man believed the answer was something, but everybody else in the group put something different, and then he conformed with them and the entire group gave the incorrect answer.

24. David Rosenhan

    •Involved with psychiatric diagnosis •The Rosenhan experiment was a famous experiment done in order to determine the validity of psychiatric diagnosis. •Tested the diagnosis of hospitals make on new patients. •Concluded "it is clear that we cannot distinguish the sane from the insane in psychiatric hospitals"

25. Philip Zimbardo

    •Involved with behavioral psychology •Conducted the famous Stanford Prison experiment. •It was conducted to study the power of social roles to influence people's behaviour. It proved people's behaviour depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play.

26. H. Rorschach

    •He developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test. The subject reads the inkblots and projects to the observer aspects of their personality; uses 10 standardized inkblots •The Rorschach test is a personality projection test where individuals are shown one of ten inkblots at a time while taking note of what they think and see in each of the images.

27. Charles Spearman

    •Known for work in statistics, as a pioneer of factor analysis, and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. •He found that specific mental talents were highly correlated. He concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled "g", for general ability

28. David Weschler

    •Introduced the theory that intelligence is a multidimensional global capacity that should be measured as an age-appropriate performance skill. •Established an intelligence test especially for adults. It became the WAIS, Weschler Intelligence Test for Adults.

29. Lewis Terman

    •Noted as a pioneer in educational psychology in the early 20th century at the Stanford Graduate School of Education •Revised Binet's I.Q. test and established norms for American children

30. Alfred Binet

    •Created general I.Q. tests (Intelligence Quotient exams) •designed a test that would identify slow learners in need of remedial help, but it was not that valuable in America as it was too culture bound.

31. E.L. Thorndike

    •Was a key figure in utilizing operant conditioning •Is known for his work Law of effect: (the relationship between behavior and its consequences) the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely. •Behavior followed by less likely consequences becomes less likely

32. Albert Bandura

    •Emphasized Observational Learning: allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others. •His experiment had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children whom watched this exhibit many of the same behaviors.

33. Howard Gardner

    •Came up with the Theory of multiple intelligences •Gardner's early work in psychology and later in human cognition and human potential led to the development of the initial six intelligences

34. Robert Sternberg

    •Is primarily known for the Triarchic theory of intelligence, which has the following 3 parts: 1. academic problem-solving intelligence, 2. practical intelligence, and 3. creative intelligence

35. Benjamin Whorf

    •Area: Language •Is primarily known for his hypothesis which says that language determines the way we think •Also discussed linguistic relativity

36. Mary Cover Jones

    •Area: Treatment •Mainly known for systemic desensitization: a behavioral technique commonly used to treat fear, anxiety disorders and phobias

37. S. Schacter

    •To experience emotions 1. must be physically aroused 2. must cognitively label arousal (know the emotion before you experience it)

38. Phineas Gage

    •First person to have a frontal lobotomy. Gave psychology information on part of the brain that is involved with emotions reasoning etc.

39. Cannon-Bard Theory

    •An emotion-arousing stimulus triggers cognitive body responses simultaneously. •Ex. arousal and emotion are simultaneous

40. James Lange Theory

    •It asserts that the perception of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion arousing stimuli. e.g. sight of coming car, pounding heart-fear

41. Carol Gilligan

    •Area: Morality •She maintained that Kohlberg's work was developed only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of men and women

42. Lawrence Kohlberg

    •His theory states there are 3 levels of moral reasoning and each level can be divided into 2 stages. 1. Pre-conventional, 2. conventional, 3. Post-conventional. •His theory focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior.

43. Erik Erikson

    •Known for his ideas that people evolve through 8 stages over the life span •Each stage is marked by psychological crisis that involves confronting "who am I"

44. Jean Piaget

    •Known for his studies on development •Four-stage theory of cognitive development: 1. Sensorimotor, 2. Preoperational, 3. Concrete Operational, and 4. Formal Operational •He said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation & accommodation

45. Noam Chomsky

    •Known for his contributions to language •Disagreed with Skinner and said there an infinite number of sentences in a language. He said that humans have an inborn native ability to develop language.

46. Ivan Pavlov

    •Known for Classical conditioning, where an unconditional stimulus naturally elicits a reflexive behaviour called an unconditional response •But with repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will elicit the response, seen through examples such as Dog Salivation

47. B.F. Skinner

    •Area: Conditioning •Operant conditioning: techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behaviour in order to observe the effects of subsequent behaviour •Also known for the Skinner Box

48. Carl Rogers

    •Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist and is well known for creating client-centered therapy •Humanistic psychology: the theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth.

49. Albert Maslow

    •Abraham Maslow is known as the Father of Humanistic Psychology, a school of thought that encourage the potential of an individual for growth and self-actualization. •Hierarchy of needs-Needs at the lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied

50. Albert Ellis

    •Albert Ellis was a humanistic psychologist who founded Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy which discovered that people's beliefs strongly affected their emotional functioning. •Ellis felt that by having one's beliefs about the events contribute to unhealthy feeling, he created a more directive and efficient way of helping his clients.

51. Gordon Allport

    •One of the founders of personality psychology and formed the trait theory of personality, which categorizes traits into three levels •Three levels of traits: 1. Cardinal trait - is the dominant trait that characterizes your life; 2. Central trait - one common to all people; 3. Secondary trait - it surfaces in some situations and not in others

52. Carl Jung

    •Best known as the founder of analytic psychology •Developed the "collective unconscious," which refers to the innate psychological predispositions shared by all humans throughout history found by formulating similarities by analyzing objects throughout the world.

53. Alfred Adler

    •Area: Childhood •Neo Freudian, believed that childhood social not sexual tensions are crucial for personality formation •Alfred Adler is known as the founder of individual psychology, which emphasizes the uniqueness of an individual. •He developed the inferiority complex, which describes people who compensate for feeling inferior by acting superior to others.

54. Little Albert

    •Area: Conditioning •Watson's study on the generalization of fear. Conditioning subject to be afraid •The Little Albert experiment was conducted by John Watson to show fear through methods of classical conditioning and generalization. Moreover, through the conditioning of the sound, the rabbit he became fearful of was white, so the child applied the fear to many white objects that he saw.

55. John Watson

    •Area: Behavior •Founder of behaviorism, conducted the study of generalization •Placed emphasis upon people's behaviors and actions as opposed to their mental states. •His experiment on little Albert presented the generalization of fear to any white object such a man's beard or a white rabbit.

56. William Wundt

    •Area: Perception •Introspection - psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience (rather than science) •Known as the "Father of Experimental Psychology" and structuralism and developed the first experimental psychology laboratory •Pioneered introspection in order to understand the subject's perspectives of their thoughts and sensations.

57. Charles Darwin

    •Area: Development •Theory of evolution, survival of the fittest, origin of the species •Darwin was one of the first evolutionary psychologists and his book On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection, became a basis for many modern theories surrounding genetics and the biological impact it has on the human body.

58. Frances Galton

    •Area: Personality •Maintained that personality and ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance (human traits are inherited) •He coined "nature versus nurture" and supported the nature aspect as he studied human intelligence and selective mating also known as eugenics.

59. endocrine system

    the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)

60. synapse

    the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

61. biological psychology

    the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)

62. neuron

    a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

63. dendrites

    a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

64. axon

    the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

65. myelin sheath

    a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

66. action potential

    a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

67. threshold

    the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

68. neurotransmitters

    chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

69. reuptake

    a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

70. endorphins

    morphine within—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)

71. nervous system

    the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

72. central nervous system (CNS)

    the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

73. peripheral nervous system (PNS)

    the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

74. somatic nervous system

    the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (Also called the skeletal nervous system.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

75. autonomic nervous system (ANS)

    the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

76. sympathetic nervous system

    the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

77. parasympathetic nervous system

    the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

78. hormones

    chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)

79. pituitary gland

    the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)

80. electroencephalogram (EEG)

    an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

81. CT (computed tomography)

    scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

82. PET (positron emission tomography)

    scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

83. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

    a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer -generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

84. fMRI (functional MRI)

    a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 096)

85. brainstem

    the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097 )

86. medulla

    the base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)

87. thalamus

    the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)

88. cerebellum

    the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

89. limbic system

    neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

90. amygdala

    two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)

91. hypothalamus

    a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)

92. cerebral cortex

    the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)

93. frontal lobes

    portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

94. parietal lobes

    portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

95. occipital lobes

    portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

96. temporal lobes

    portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

97. motor cortex

    an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

98. somatosensory cortex

    area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 107)

99. Neuroplasticity

    the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 111)

100. corpus callosum

     the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)