Ron's ESS

320 flashcards · Other · by Ronuk Gadamsetty

A map is a representation of the features of a physical body such as Earth
Although Earth’s shape is not a true sphere, it is a spheroid.
A compass is a tool that uses Earth’s natural magnetism to show direction.
The equator is a circle halfway between the North and South Poles that divides Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Latitude is the distance north or south from the equator.
The equator represents 0° latitude.
The North Pole is 90° north latitude
The South Pole is 90° south latitude
Lines of longitude, or meridians, are imaginary lines that connect both poles. It is the distance east and west from the prime meridian
The prime meridian is the line that represents 0° longitude.
The prime meridian runs from the North Pole through Greenwich, England, to the South Pole.
The 180° meridian lies on the opposite side of Earth from the prime meridian.
The legend is a list of symbols used in the map that need explanations.
The scale shows the relationship between the distance on Earth’s surface and the distance on the map.
An indicator of direction can show which way is north or give other information about the location of the map. This can be a compass rose, a north arrow, or a latitude/longitude grid.
Data used in many of today’s maps are provided by the process of remote sensing. It is a way to gather information about an object without directly touching or seeing the object.
The global positioning system (GPS) can help you find where you are on Earth.
Geographic information systems (GISs) are computerized systems that visually present information about an area.
A topographic map is a map that shows surface features, or topography , of an area. They show both natural features, such as rivers, lakes, and mountains, and features made by humans and elevation.
Elevation is the height of an object above sea level.
The elevation at sea level is 0 m.
Contour lines are lines that connect points of equal elevation.
Relief is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points of the area being mapped.
The difference in elevation between one contour line and the next is called the contour interval.
A flat area has low (low/high) relief.
Contour lines that are close together show a steep (gentle/steep) slope.
Contour lines that are spaced far apart show a gentle (steep/gentle) slope.
Contour lines that cross a valley or stream are V shaped. The V points toward the area of higher elevation. If a stream flows through the valley, the V points upstream.
The tops of hills, mountains, and depressions are shown by closed circles. Depressions are marked with short, straight lines inside the circle that point downslope to the depression.(contour lines)
Maps that show the distribution of geologic features in a given area are called geologic maps.
Geologists make geologic maps by physically walking over an area. They record on a base map, bodies of rock and geologic structures that they see.
Rocks of a given rock type and age range are called a geologic unit.
A contact line shows places where two geologic units meet, called contacts. In addition, these lines can be used to identify where rocks have been deformed. The shapes of these lines indicate where rock layers have been folded.
The crust is the thin and solid outermost compositional layer of Earth. It is is 5 to 70 km thick and is made mostly of silicate minerals.
The mantle is 2,900 km thick. The mantle is slightly denser than the crust.
The lithosphere is 15 to 300 km thick. This rigid layer of Earth is divided into pieces called tectonic plates.
The asthenosphere is a solid, plastic layer upon which the tectonic plates move.
The mesosphere is the lower, solid layer of the mantle.
The outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel.
The inner core is also made up of iron and nickel but is under so much pressure that it is solid.
The troposphere is the atmospheric layer in which we live. It extends outward to about 12 km from Earth’s surface. Weather phenomena, such as the clouds , usually occur here.
The stratosphere is the layer directly above the troposphere. Temperatures here increase with altitude
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere, which is the coldest layer of the atmosphere
Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere, which is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. Like temperatures in the stratosphere, temperatures here increase with altitude.
Layers of Earth's Atmosphere (Trust Me in the Exam) Troposphere (Tru) Stratosphere (st) Mesosphere (me in) Thermosphere (the) Exosphere (exam)
The exosphere is the uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually fades into the vacuum of space. The air here is extremely thin; in many ways it is almost the same as the airless void of outer space.
The sun radiates the main source of energy that reaches Earth’s surface. Solar radiation heats Earth’s surface unevenly. This uneven heating causes the air in the atmosphere to move. For example, cold air is denser than warm air. So, cold air in the atmosphere sinks.
The transfer of energy through a fluid is called convection.
Earth’s hydrosphere is made up of the water in, on, and surrounding Earth. It includes the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, and polar icecaps.
Most of the water on Earth is in the global ocean. It covers a surface area of about 335 million square kilometers. It holds more than 97% of all of the water on Earth
The sun’s energy heats ocean water unevenly. Thus, the temperature of the water varies. The temperature of ocean water also decreases with depth. Differences in temperature cause differences in density. The salt in ocean water also affects the density of ocean water. Differences in the density of ocean water cause the water to move. This movement of matter caused by differences in density is called a convection current.
The biosphere is made up of living organisms and the areas of Earth where life is found.
Scientifically, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object.
When particles are in motion, they have kinetic energy. The faster that the particles move, the more energy they have.
When a substance’s temperature increases, the substance’s particles have more kinetic energy. Thus, the particles move faster and move apart. As the space between the particles increases, the substance expands. The increase in volume resulting from an increase in temperature is called thermal expansion.
Heat is the energy that is transferred between objects that are at different temperatures.
When heat is transferred between objects, the thermal energy of each object changes. It is the total kinetic energy of the particles that make up a substance.
The transfer of heat from one object to another through direct contact is called conduction.
The transfer of heat or other energy as electromagnetic waves, such as visible light or infrared waves, is called radiation.
Changes of state include condensing (gas to liquid), freezing (liquid to solid), melting (solid to liquid), and evaporating (liquid to gas).
Heat flow is the transfer of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.
Electromagnetic Spectrum (decreasing wavelength) Radio Microwave Infrared Visible light Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma Ray
Electromagnetic radiation includes a wide range of wavelengths, which are collectively referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum.
The Earth receives most of its energy from the sun.
If Earth’s surface is warmer than the air, conduction will heat the air touching the ground. As this air becomes warmer, it becomes less dense and rises. The warm air moves upward, away from Earth’s surface. As the air rises, it cools. The air becomes denser and begins to sink back toward Earth’s surface. As the cool air sinks, it forces warm air away from Earth’s surface. This cycle causes wind.
Earth heats rock in the mantle. The heated rock is under high pressure. So, the rock becomes plastic without melting, which causes the rock to flow like putty. As it becomes less dense, the heated rock rises toward Earth’s surface. The cooler, denser rock surrounding the heated rock sinks. In this way, heat inside Earth moves toward the cooler crust. This movement of rock is a convection current. These cause the movement of tectonic plates.
Earth is 4.6 Billion years old.
The Earth is 4.6 Billion years old.
One cycle that takes millions of years is the rock cycle. It consists of the processes by which rocks change from one form to another. Several geologic processes can change rock from one type to another. These processes include melting, cooling, cementation, heat, pressure, weathering, and erosion.
Weathering is the process by which rock is broken down by wind, water, and temperature changes. Erosion is the process by which wind, water, ice, or gravity transport parts of the weathered rock from one location to another
The three major classes of rocks are sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Sedimentary rocks form when rocks break into smaller pieces and those pieces become cemented together. Igneous rocks form when hot, liquid rock—called magma—cools and becomes solid. Metamorphic rocks form when rock is changed because of chemical processes or heat and pressure.
Sedimentary rocks are divided into three types: clastic, chemical, and organic. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made of fragments of rock or minerals. Before they are cemented together, these fragments of rock or minerals are called sediment. Clastic sedimentary rocks form when sediments are buried, put under pressure, and cemented by minerals such as calcite and quartz. Chemical sedimentary rocks form when minerals crystallize from a solution, such as ocean water. The minerals are buried, put un…
Igneous rocks are divided into groups based on the texture of the rock, or the size of the crystals in the rock. Magma that slowly cools deep inside Earth forms coarse-grained rocks made of large crystals. Lava that erupts at Earth’s surface and quickly cools forms fine-grained rocks made of very small crystals. Igneous rock can also be classified by its chemical composition. The chemical composition of an igneous rock is determined by the type of rock that initially melts to form magma. Magma…
Metamorphic rock is rock that forms from other rocks as a result of intense heat, pressure, or chemical processes. Most metamorphic changes happen deep within Earth’s crust at depths greater than 2 km. At these depths, pressure can be many times greater than it is at Earth’s surface. Temperature is also much higher at these depths than it is at Earth’s surface. There are two types of metamorphic rocks. The minerals of foliated metamorphic rock, such as gneiss, are arranged in planes or bands. T…
The water cycle is the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, the land, and the oceans. The sun is the major source of energy that powers the water cycle. Energy from the sun heats the water on Earth.
Evaporation is the process in which liquid water changes into gaseous water vapor. Water vapor is also released into the air through stomata on the leaves of plants. This process is known as transpiration. If air that contains water vapor cools, the water vapor turns into liquid water droplets and forms clouds. The change from a gas to a liquid is called condensation. When water droplets become large enough, they fall back to Earth as precipitation, such as rain.
Most precipitation falls directly into the ocean and never reaches the land surface. Precipitation that does reach the land surface may fill lakes, streams, and rivers and eventually return to the ocean. Water moving over the land surface is called runoff. Gravity may move the water downward through spaces in rock or soil, where the water becomes groundwater.
Carbon is an important element that cycles through the Earth system. It is part of the proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in living things. But it is not only in living things. It is also in the atmosphere, the water, the land, and the remains of living things. The cycling of carbon between Earth’s spheres is called the carbon cycle.
When animals eat the plants, the energy in the plants is transferred to the animals. When the animals break down food to release energy, carbon is returned to the air as carbon dioxide. Then, the CO2 is reused by plants. When a living thing dies, other organisms break down the remains. This process, called decomposition, releases the carbon from the dead organism back into the carbon cycle.
Other parts of the carbon cycle are much slower processes. In some cases, dead organisms are buried before they decompose. Their bodies chemically change as they are compacted for millions of years. This process forms rock, such as limestone, or fossil fuels, such as coal, gas, and oil. When humans burn these fuels, carbon returns to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process of burning fuel is called combustion.
The circulation of nitrogen among Earth’s spheres is called the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is an important nutrient for all living things. Certain bacteria in the soil change atmospheric nitrogen, N2, into forms of nitrogen that plants can use. Other organisms get the nitrogen that they need by eating plants. When organisms die, decomposers release nitrogen from the dead organisms back into the soil. Then, plants use some of this nitrogen. Some bacteria in soil change this nitrogen into atmospher…
Like carbon and nitrogen, phosphorus is found in living things. It is also found in soil, rock, and water. The roots of plants absorb phosphorus from the soil. Then, animals obtain phosphorus when they eat the plants. When the animals die, the phosphorus returns to the soil through decomposition.
A natural resource is any natural material that is used by humans. Examples of natural resources are air, soil, fresh water, petroleum, rocks, minerals, forests, and wildlife
Some natural resources can be replaced in a relatively short time. A renewable resource is a natural resource that can be replaced at the same rate at which the resource is used. A nonrenewable resource is a resource that forms at a much slower rate than the rate at which it is used.
A mineral is a naturally formed, usually inorganic solid that has a crystalline structure.
What is a Mineral? Geologists define minerals as being naturally formed. If a diamond is made in a laboratory, it is called a synthetic diamond to distinguish it from a naturally formed mineral. Minerals are also solids. So, the ice in a glacier is a mineral, but liquid water is not a mineral. Minerals usually form by inorganic processes. In other words, they are usually not formed by or from living things. Coal is not a mineral because it forms from the remains of plants. Minerals are crystals…
An ore is a deposit that is large enough and has enough of the desired material to be mined for profit.
Types of Mining If ore is found at or near the surface of Earth, surface mining is used to remove the ore. Open pit mining is used to remove large, near-surface deposits of valuable minerals such as gold and copper. Surface coal mining is sometimes known as strip mining because the coal is removed in strips. Subsurface mines are used when ore is too deep within Earth to be surface mined.
The process by which land used for mining is returned to its original state or better is called reclamation
Energy resources are natural resources that humans use to generate energy. Most of the energy that we use comes from a group of natural resources called fossil fuels. Material resources are natural resources that humans use to make objects or that are consumed as food and drink.
A liquid mixture of complex hydrocarbons that is found in Earth’s crust is called petroleum.
Stages of Coal Formation (Peter loves smart Bob alot) Peat Lignite Sub-Bituminous Bituminous Anthracite
For example, when coal is burned without pollution controls, sulfur dioxide is released. Sulfur dioxide combines with moisture in the air to produce sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is one of the acids in acid precipitation. Acid precipitation is rain, sleet, or snow that has a high concentration of acid, often because of air pollutants.
The energy released when the nuclei of atoms are split or combined is called nuclear energy; can be obtained by two main processes: fission (seperating nuclei) and fusion (joining nuclei).
Nuclear fission produces a large amount of energy. This source of energy does not cause the problems that fossil fuels do. Because no fuel is burned, nuclear power does not cause air pollution. In addition, mining the fuel for nuclear power does not result in massive strip mines or cause the loss of wildlife habitat. Nuclear power also has drawbacks. For example, nuclear power plants produce dangerous radioactive wastes. These wastes must be stored for a very long period of time where the radia…
Another method of obtaining energy from nuclei is fusion, shown in. Fusion is the joining of two or more nuclei to form a larger nucleus. This process happens naturally in the sun and releases a large amount of energy. Fusion has two main advantages. First, fusion produces few dangerous wastes. Second, the fuels for fusion cannot be exhausted, so fusion is a renewable source of energy. The main disadvantage of fusion is that the reaction can take place only at very high temperature. So, it is d…
Wind power is the use of a windmill to drive an electric generator. Clusters of wind turbines can generate a large amount of electrical energy. Wind energy is renewable and does not cause any pollution.
Fuel cells power automobiles by converting chemical energy into electrical energy. This conversion happens when hydrogen and oxygen react to form water. One advantage of using fuel cells as energy sources is that fuel cells do not create pollution. The only byproduct of fuel cells is water.
Sunlight can be changed into electrical energy through the use of solar cells or photovoltaic cells. You may have used a calculator powered by solar cells. Solar energy can also be used directly to heat buildings and to generate electrical energy. However, the technology that is used to generate electrical energy from solar energy is very expensive.
After a dam and a hydroelectric power plant are built, generating hydroelectric energy is inexpensive It causes no air pollution and little other pollution. Hydroelectric energy is renewable because it is driven by the water cycle, which is driven by solar energy. Like wind energy, hydroelectric energy is not available everywhere. It can be produced only where large volumes of moving water can be harnessed. Huge dams, must be built on major rivers to capture enough water to generate large amoun…